Yusuf Rahman. Islamic Intl. A short summary of this paper. A volume in honor of Professor. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form. ISBN pbk. Koran--Criticism, interpretation, etc. Boullata, Issa J. Mohammed, Khaleel. Rippin, Andrew, BP C Problems in Reading the Qur'an 1 1. Metaphor and the Authority of the Qur'an 47 Andrew Rippin 4. The Quran. The Qur'an in History 75 5. Marcotte He is even regarded by Katrin Speicher as this method's spiritual father as well as the first to apply it.
He broke new ground in proposing a new approach to Qur'anic studies based on a literary point of view. In his book Manahij tajdtd ft'l-nahw wa'l-balagha wa'l-tafstr wa'l-adab, and especially in the section on al-Tafstrl al-Khnlt argues that literary study of the Qur'an consists of two steps: dirasat ma hawla'l-Qur'an and dirasat ma ft'l-Qur'an. However, because of the many objections raised against the lit- erary approach to the Qur 'an in Egypt, especially against "al-fann al-qasast," it was not applied very much after the time of Khalaf Allah.
Many students under al-Khnlt's direction-either for fear of the consequences or due to a shift in interests-wrote instead on Arabic literature," Khalaf Allah wrote his second dissertation on al- Raghib al-Isfahant's al-Aghant while "Ayyad wrote on the Arabic translation of Aristotle's book on poetics.
And if literary interpreta- tions of the Qur' an were attempted, they were more philological. Although he did not study directly under al-KhOlI, Abu Zayd has consistently asserted that he belongs to that tradition.
In his works, he clearly states that he is applying a literary approach to the Qur'an in response to al-Khnlt's call to study the Qur'an as a literary text. Abu Zayd's Presuppositions In his article entitled "Tafstr from Tabarr to Ibn Kathtr" Norman Calder writes that "[t]he qualities which distinguish one mufassir from another lie less in their conclusions as to what the Qur'anic text means than in their development and display of techniques which mark their participation in "and mastery of a literary disci- pline.?
It is also often said that different conclusions in interpretation are mainly due to the variety of methods used by interpreters. Scholars frequently differ in their assessment of the same text. In the case of the Qur 'an, for example, the Ash'arites assumed its eternity, while the Mu'tazilites were convinced of its createdness.
Among Western scholars of the Qur 'an, John Wansbrough operated on the presupposition that the present Qur'an was the product of editorial efforts some hundred years after the prophet, while the traditional views suppose it to be the text left by Muhammad and published by the caliph 'Uthman b. Scholars commonly differentiate between presuppositions and prejudice; presupposition is the philosophical or theological starting point which an interpreter takes, while preju- dice consists in personal factors which affect the judgment of the interpreter.
In his other article "The Problem of Hermeneutics," he argues that to demand that an interpreter silence his subjectivity and individuality is a false ideal because it will destroy the very condition of interpre- tation, which is a "life relation" between interpreter and subject.
Exegesis, according to him, must be without prejudices, in that the latter must not decide in advance what the results of exegesis should be, or manipulate the text to confirm a particular opinion. Agreeing with hermeneuts and semioticians, Abu Zayd argues that the existence of a variety of methods and analytical-critical trends in the study of literary texts is due essentially to differing views in defining the nature of the text ikhtilaf fi tahdtd mahiyyat al-nasst?
No one knows better than Abu Zayd himself how much courage it requires to pursue such a course, one which can sometimes cost a person his life. But for the sake of scientific awareness inta] waCy "ilmi] of the turath Islamic heritage , Abu Zayd has been willing to run that risk. On the contrary, he insists that as a text it can be interpreted by any modem critical approach. This view was bitterly condemned by many scholars, especially the Islamists, since in their view the Qur'an is superior to all other texts, being unique and therefore to be studied differently.
Even in the fields of Old and New Testament scholarship, there are still some schol- ars who insist that inasmuch as it is the Word of God, scripture should not be the subject of human investigation or at least has to be approached by a special method. There is no "sacred herme- neutics" nor is there privilege given to these texts because of their authority. On the contrary, they must be treated like any other text.
Wood, for example, makes the following interesting comment on the liberal position on this issue: [T]he fact that scripture is authoritative for a community does not mean that it must be regarded as authoritative by its interpreters, or that it must be interpreted as an authori- tative text.
Interpreters within or outside the community whose scripture it is may for various reasons disregard its authority-that is, disregard its character as scripture-on the grounds that for their particular purposes its authorita- tive character is either irrelevant or inadmissible.
And as such, it is subject to human understanding and method. In an interview conducted by Navid Kermani, Abu Zayd states that the reason why he treats the Qur'an as a text in the Arabic language is in order that Muslims, Christians and atheists alike can study the Qur'an because Arabic culture is united with it. Stanton, the author of "Pre- suppositions in New Testament Criticism," who addresses a similar issue in New Testament studies, the argument appears to be more logical, and one with which, I think, Abu Zayd would agree.
Stan- ton argues that since interpretation involves dialogue with the text, the interpreter's belief is not at issue.
The most important aspect of interpretation, however, is "willingness and readiness to run the risk that the pre-understanding with which he comes to the text may well be refined or completely renewed. He must be prepared to be interpreted by the text. That is the necessary presupposition with which he must attempt to operate. Atkinson, for example, argues in his "Religious Dialogue and Critical Possibili- ties" that the "openness" initiated in modern critical theory may lib- erate a student of religion from exclusivism and allow him to learn other possibilities from other traditions.
Abn Zayd-who had organized the conference-concluded that: "[T]he old cliches of orientalists versus Muslims seem very much to be a thing of the past,'? Dialogue, he states, can only be disrupted when one party claims to have the absolute truth and rejects the other.
Besides assuming that the Qur 'an is a linguistic text. Abu Zayd presupposes that it is also a cultural product tmuntaj thaqaft t," This understanding is based on the argument that since the Qur'an took shape tashakkal during a period of more than twenty years in a specific context and culture, the latter obviously had a role in shaping tashktl the former. He argues that when God revealed the Qur 'an to His messenger, He chose a human language as the code for revelation. And given that a language cannot exist in isolation from its culture since the latter is embodied ttajassad in language, it is therefore impossible to separate the text from its cultural context," At the same time, Abu Zayd argues in Naqd al-khitab al-dtnt for the humanity of the text bashariyyat al-nassy.
Gabeel and co-authors, for example, argue in the case of the Bible in their book The Bible as Literature. This is the initial and the most decisive fact. Without this initial act on the part of God, there would have been no true religion on earth according to the Islamic understanding of the word religion. It is no wonder then, that Islam should have been from the very beginning extremely language conscious.
Islam arose when God spoke. The whole Islamic culture made its start with the historic fact that man was addressed by God in a language which he himself spoke. This was not a simple matter of God's having "sent down" a sacred book. It meant primarily that God "spoke.
Revelation is essentially a lin- guistic concept:" To prove the humanity of the text, Abu Zayd makes a comparison between Jesus and the Qur'an. Similarly Q. As for the Qur'an, Q. In both cases, Gabriel played the role of mediator coming in the form of a perfect man basharan sawi- yyan to Maryam Q.
This is a problem in Christian theology. The flesh and blood Jesus, who was born at a certain historical time and died at another, lived in Nazareth-this Jesus is a human being. This Jesus is the one we know.
The Qur 'an, which we know, is Arabic. The Arabic language is a historical language. The Qur'an was revealed at a certain historical time. This reference points again to Abu Zayd's debt to Izutsu, who discussed this issue in an article which Abu Zayd had used. However, he asserts that the relation between text and context is dialectical tjadaliyya], in that, not only does context shape the text but the latter also shapes the context and becomes the producer of culture tmuntij li'l-thaqafai.
S2 The role of the text in shaping the culture may be represented in the existence. What is a Text? S3 Having stated his assumption that the Qur'sn is a text, Abu Zayd goes on to detine and explain the nature of Qur'anic text in general. He suggests that before an attempt can be made at interpretation, "one must first define the nature of the text and examine the laws that gov- ern the study of that text-not every interpretation is permissible. He tells of the case of an al-Azhar University professor who protested against the use of the word "text" in reference to the Qur 'an.
The professor's argument was that: We have not seen in the history of the [Islamic] community anyone describe the Qur 'an other than by the names that God himself used such as suwar [Qur'an] chapters and ayat verses ; similarly we do not know of any [Muslim] scholar who dealt with the Qur'an as a text tnass , because this is what is prohibited by God.
They instead dealt with it as tanztl revelation from God. In his research into the many usages of the term found in Lisan al-iArab of Ibn Manznr d. As an illustra- tion. Those in the first cat- egory are called al-nass, meaning the clearest verses.
The second category is that of al-VIhir, which are less clear since there are two possibilities for their meanings, of which the apparent meaning, however, is the more appropriate. The third category is that of al- mu'awwal metaphorical verses, i. The fourth and the last level is al-mujmal the general. If there is no nass, then comes the role of interpretation. Abu Zayd, on the other hand, understands this term to refer only to the muhkamat; the other verses falling outside this category may still need interpretation.
Paul Ricoeur simply defines a text as "any discourse fixed by writing. Jorge J. Gracia in his A Theory of Textuality: The Logic and Epistemology has tried to provide a comprehensive definition of text.
Or to put it another way: What is the textuality of the Qur' an in his opinion? While there are many names used to designate the Qur'an. Abn Zayd asserts that the terms waby ; "revelation," and risala, "message," are its central designations, especially in his effort to define text.
Acknowledging his debt to linguist Roman Jakobsen's analysis of literary text, Abu Zayd sees a text as a form of communication or revelation act. To be operative the message requires a CONTEXT referred to "referent" in another, somewhat ambiguous, nomenclature , seizable by the addressee, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized; a CODE fully or at least partially, common to the addresser and addressee or in other words, to the encoder and decoder of the mes- sage ; and, finally, a CONTACT, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to enter and stay in com- munication.
And in the case of the Qur'an, it is a message sent by God to His messenger through revelation in a certain context using the Arabic language. For one thing, in literary communication the addresser and the addressee are not co-present but belong to different periods of time. In the words of Ricoeur, in a literary text "[t]he reader is absent from the act of writing; the writer is absent from the act of reading.
The text thus produces a double eclipse of the reader and the writer. It thereby replaces the relation of dia-. Barbara A. Abu Zayd is aware of the oral aspect of the Qur 'an," but since, I would argue, his concern is with the interpretation of the Qur'an and the dialectical relation between text and context, he focuses mainly on the written text and discusses wavy, the oral communica- tion, in an attempt to prove the textuality of the Qur 'an.
It should be pointed out that the communication process in the Qur'an is very complex. Jt as Cesare Segre has pointed out in his Introduction to the Analysis of the Liter- ary Text in the case of literary communication "automatically brings to the fore its links with the culture, and the perspective thereby established is a historical one.
The codes employed by the addresser, and his motivations as well, derive from the cultural context within which he is inserted, while the addressee will have recourse to the codes at his disposition in order to interpret the text. He writes: I. Religious texts are linguistic texts. They are constructed according to the structures and rules as every other lin- guistic text. Religious texts, as linguistic texts, are human texts. They are associated with the general condition of human thought and human speech and communication.
Religious texts, as human texts, are products of human culture. They owe their genesis to a certain cultural context, through whose specific characteristics they are substantially and formally shaped. Religious texts, as products of human culture, are historical texts. They are, like every other product of human culture, subjected to the conditions of time and space. Religious texts, as historical texts, are the subject of research through the historico-critical sciences using the standard methods, as these are applied also to all other historical texts," Abu Zayd defines historicity as "the occurrence in time" tal-hudutb jt'l-zamtin.
Everything produced by these attributes is muhdath. The belief in the historicity of the Qur'an, for Abu Zayd, leads to the fundamental consequence that, since the prescriptions of the Qur'an are very much linked to seventh-century Arabia, some of these prescriptions can no longer be applied in the present context. The changing of the context, therefore, invites new interpretation.
This re-interpretation has to be performed not only with regard to the text of the Qur'an, but also to other elements in the turtith of Islam, since these too are conditioned by the socio-historical context.
Often applied in Qur'anic studies as well as in Biblical interpretation, it is an approach that-to use the criteria outlined by John Bartonv-vexamines the genesis, original meaning and historical reconstruction of the text, all of which ques- tions are now considered passe, having been surpassed by the "new paradigm.? Nevertheless, as has been quite convincingly argued by Barton, the historical-critical approach focuses on more than just the dia- chronic aspect of the text-it also takes in its synchronic side.
His- torical approaches, continues Barton, "are predominantly literary in their interests Finally, he proposes that the defining characteristic of Biblical inter- pretation is its "critical" tendency to ask questions unrestrictedly about the meaning of the text without fear of authority. As he states: It is time now for a re-examination and transition to.
We must undertake this liberation now and immediately before the flood sweeps us away. The Meaning of the Text There are at least three factors which are seen as determining the meaning of the text: the author, the text and the reader. Finally, the reader-centered interpre- tation, usually known as reader-response theory, argues that it is the reader who.
In his discussion of the author of the 'Qur'an, Abu Zayd has argued that God as well as the divine pre-existence of the Qur'an are questions that lie beyond human reason. It is therefore impossible, argues AbU Zayd, to. He does not go. And yet Abu Zayd may not be aware of the consequences of this judgment for the interpretation of other historical texts, espe- cially in view of his opinion that the Qur'an is a text like any other text.
On the surface he seems to. With his theory of text Ricoeur asserts that when speech is fixed in writing, the text becomes autonomous from its author and the latter's intention. In his many writings he often quotes the statement of -Arr b.
AbITlilib d. They can be used in whatever way readers or interpreters choose. If interpreters choose to respect an author's intentions, that is because it is in their interest to do SO. Abu Zayd, however, does not agree with the view that the mean- ing of the text is constructed by the reader alone.
He says that in the process of interpretation, the text is not a silent object that can be carried in any direction by any active reader. The relation between the reader and the text is not the relation of ikhda' forcing the text to submit to the reader on the part of the reader and khudu: sub- mission on the part of the text.
As for how this dialectical relation operates, however, the debate still rages. The main question is: How do they meet? How does the reader construct the meaning from the text? James L. Macher' has summarized this debate in his article "The Object of Interpreta- tion and Interpretive Change,"IOS where he observes at least three groups: those who argue that the text possesses intrinsic formal fea- tures from which readers build meaning; others who propose that the reader constructs meaning through filling the gaps or blanks in the text; and finally, a third group that asserts the immanent mean- ing of the word.
He is aware of the historical dimension of the text and thus its histori- cal distance al-bu'd al-tartkht from the contemporary reader, but the latter cannot jump to contextualize the text without understand- ing the original meaning of it.
It is through a diachronic approach, by study how the first generation understood the text, that the historical meaning of the text will be revealed. But, this meaning is not the final one for Abu Zayd. It needs to be followed with another step, which is to find its significance maghza in the present con- text, or if we may use the distinction made by Biblical scholar Krister Stendahl between "what it meant" in the past and "what it means" in the present context.
Surprisingly, Abu Zayd's distinction between ma'na and maghza was adopted from E. Hirsch's distinction between "meaning" and "significance,"! Let us see first how Hirsch distinguishes between the two: In his Validity in Interpretation Hirsch writes: Meaning is that which is represented by a text; it is what the author meant by his use of a particular sign sequence; it is what the signs represent.
Significance, on the other hand, names a relationship between that meaning and a person, or a conception, or a situation or indeed anything imaginable. While Abu Zayd accepts Hirsch's attribution of the stable nature of meaning and the changing character of significance, "meaning" in Abu Zayd's hermeneutics is not that imposed by the author, but the historical meaning as understood by the first addressees of the text.
It is the canonical meaning-to use Raymond E. Brown's clas- sification of meaning-that Abu Zayd refers to. In his The Critical Meaning of the Bible, Brown distinguishes between literal mean- ing which meant to its author, canonical meaning which meant to those who first accepted it as Scripture, and contemporary meaning which means today.
As has been pointed by Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Brown's third classification should not be considered as meaning but rather as significance.! He detects two different usages of the word.! On this basis ta'wtl, which is the verba! For example, Q. Obey God and obey the messenger and those of you who are in authority He further states that the maghza has to be based on the historical meaning and is closely related to the latter. Significance involves the relevance or the importance of the text's meaning, It is here, I think, where the reader plays a greater role.
It is true that the reader also has a part to fulfill in discovering the historical meaning of the text, but since this meaning is deter- minate and stable, his role ends after discovering it.
Finding the sig- nificance of that meaning, on the other hand, varies from one reader to the other, from one socio-historical context to the other. Abn Zayd, however, provides some general principles to facilitate valid interpretation. The awareness of the difference between the original con- textual "meaning" which is almost fixed because of its historicity and the "significance" which is changeable - in addition to the awareness of the necessity that the signif- icance is to be firmly related and rationally connected to the meaning, will produce a more valid interpretation.
It is only valid, however, as long as it does not violate the above mentioned methodological rules in order to jump to some "desired" ideological conclusions.
But it is not an absolute objective, since it will stand in the way of other possible interpretations-a far from desirable situation in that, as he himself admits, he cannot claim to be privy to abso- lute truth.
The kind of objectivity that he is proposing is contextual" objectivity or cultural objectiviry.! In the following, I will discuss Fazlur Rahman's and Mohammed Arkoun's approaches to the Qur'an, which resemble Abu Zayd's insofar that they too have proposed the application of more mod- em interpretive methods to the Qur'an. Another similarity between these scholars-and perhaps the most important one-just as Abu Zayd insists on defining revelation before interpreting the Qur'an, Rahman and Arkoun too place an emphasis on understanding the meaning of revelation.
Their determination to redefine waby and regard it in human and historical terms is meant to challenge the existing con- cept of the term that has dominated the Muslim world and to revive ones that have previously been banned and buried in Islamic his- tory.
In addition, contrary to Saeed's assumption, their attempt to revise the concept of revelation is based on their own understanding of the Qur 'an. It is this statement that has led to many objections on the part of his fellow- countrymen in Pakistan. Despite, however, the opposition he faced, Rahman retained this conviction till the end of his life.
Comment- ing on this attitude in later years, Rahman states: I defended the idea of the verbal revelation of the Qur 'an, which is the universal belief. However, it seemed to me that the standard orthodox accounts of revelation give a mechanical and externalistic picture of the relationship between Muhammad and the Qur'an-sGabriel coming and delivering God's messages to him almost like a postman delivering letters.
The Qur'an itself says that the Angel "comes down to the heart" of Muhammad. The latter view, according to Rahman, insists on the "otherness" of the Qur'an and the "externality" of the Prophet in the process of revelation, neither of which solutions gives role to the Prophet Muhammad. The Mu" tazilites, on the other hand, to whom Rahman's idea refers, main- tained the Prophet's involvement in revelation.
The Prophet's implication in the revelatory process, argues Rah- man, is attested to in the Qur'an which states that the revelation was sent down to the heart of Muhammad Q. Further proof of Muhammad's involvement might be seen from the fact that many of the Qur 'anic verses deal with the historical context of Muham- rnad. Rahman approaches the Qur'an through an attempt to understand it in its socio-historical setting.
By applying this method, it is possible to distinguish between prescription and description in the Qur'an. Rahman is, however, best known for his "double movement" approach to interpreting the Qur'an. The first movement is to move from the present situation to the time in which the Qur'an was revealed. This enables the interpreter to evaluate the verse in the context of its socio-historical background, allowing him or her to grasp the purpose' and original intention 6f the verse.
The second movement is an attempt to interpret the ramifications of the verse in the face of the present socio-cultural situation.! To understand the meaning of a given verse, the inter- preter should study the historical situation surrounding its revela- tion.
This step implies the absolute necessity of knowing the social and religious life of Arabia on the eve of Islam as well as its customs and institutions.
In the light of this socio-historical background, it is then possible in the second step to derive general moral-social objectives from specific texts. After determining these objectives, the scholar is ready to move from the general view achieved in the first movement to apply these Qur'anic principles to society in the context of contemporary socio- historical.
This requires a careful study of the present. According to Ebrahim Moosa in his introduction to Rahman's posthumous book Revival and Reform in Islam, Rahman's theory of double movement is a condensation of E. Betti's d. First, he asserts his under- standing of the humanity and historicity of revelation by referring to the Qur'anic text and comparing the human manifestation of the Qur'an with that of Jesus as maintained by the Qur 'an.
Next, his critical study of the traditional Qur'anic sciences provides him with more proofs of the spatial and temporal aspects of revelation. Abu Zayd's application of Jakobsen's theory of literary communication, as well as that of Saussure's differentiation between langue and parole, to the concepts of waby as well as to Arabic language and the Qur'an, discloses further the involvement of humanity and cul- ture in forming the revelation.
He distinguishes between three aspects of the Qur'an: its content, language, and structure. Although the content of the Qur'an is from God, Abu Zayd argues, it is expressed in human language, and therefore it is correlated with cultural and historical contexts.
As for the structure of the Qur 'an, Abu Zayd sees the human dimension of revelation in the fact that the Qur'an was revealed piecemeal tmunajjam , as well as in the process of the canoniza- tion of the Qur'an.
Inasmuch as it was revealed portion by portion, the Qur'an responded to the needs and demands of the community. In terms of theory of interpretation, on the other hand, AbU Zayd's contextual approach to the Qur'an seems to be close to the double movement theory of Rahman.
Though it is not quite clear whether Abu Zayd was influenced by Rahman's works, he does after all allude to double movement in speaking of the double mean- ing of the term ta'wtl and its use in the Qur 'an. When one claims that a particular method is the most authoritative one, one destroys the view of hermeneutics itself which admits different kinds of methods. Mohammed Arkoun for one rejects single-minded approaches to the study of the Qur'an, and instead recommends a variety of approaches drawing from the humanities and social sciences.
Like Rahman and Abu Zayd, Arkoun starts his project by dis- cussing the notion of revelation. In his Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers, Arkoun writes: The question of revelation is more delicate, especially if one wishes to get beyond and renew "orthodox" teachings piously repeated within each of the monotheistic traditions.
It is not a matter of ignoring or overturning these teachings; -. Qur'an is to be found in the Islamic heritage itself. He refers to the Mu'tazilite concept of the createdness of the Qur'an, stating that this concept implies that the Qur'an is in need of human mediation twisata bashariyyatr" By declaring that the Qur'an is created, it asserts that the Qur'an is manifested in human language, i.
Arkoun differentiates between several levels of the Qur'm. The second level is the Qur'anic discourse which is the oral transmission of this Word to Muhammad.
This Qur 'an, which is also called by Arkoun "the prophetic discourse" al-khitab al-nabawtj. The latter are those who accompanied the Prophet and heard the Qur' an directly from him. This oral discourse was then transformed into a text mushaf , and finally elevated into the Official Closed Corpus. Zayyanid threat, defeating Yaghmurasan at Isly and Shatzmiller, Maya. The Berbers and the Islamic State: destroying his fortress at Oujda.
Princeton: Markus Weiner, In , the Marinids captured the stephen cory southern desert city of Sijilmasa, wresting it from the authority of the Zayyanids. This victory allowed Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid — , Egyptian Abu Yusuf to gain more direct control over the thinker and academic, was born in Quhafa in prosperous caravan trade from West Africa, which Tanta.
His father was a grocer and his mother a passed through the desert outpost. It also provided housewife. He had two sisters and two brothers. He additional security for the southern parts of the married Ibtihal Younes, a professor of French lit- country. After agreeing to a truce with Yaghmurasan, erature at Cairo University. Though his family Abu Yusuf began to pursue active involvement in could not afford to give him a university education, Spain. From to , the Marinid sultan led he obtained an industrial secondary diploma in four expeditions across the Strait of Gibraltar, fre- that enabled him to work as a radio technician quently involving himself in internal struggles between and Faculty of Arts, Cairo University.
He obtained his MA degree authority throughout Morocco. He had eliminated in and his PhD. During the prepara- the Almohads, defeated the Zayyanids, gained an tion of his Ph. Then, between and administration, even as it helped to keep Fezzi reli- , he obtained a grant from the Middle East gious opposition under control.
Although Marinid Center at the University of Pennsylvania. He also rule lacked the scope and religious legitimacy of the worked as a visiting professor at the University of earlier Almohads, the Marinids had at least estab- Osaka from to In , he was appointed as professor to Yaghmurasan. He died in Cairo on 5 July after con- bibliography tracting a virus during a visit to Indonesia.
Kitab al-anis al-mutrib Abu Zayd devoted the majority of his academic bi-rawd al-Qirtas. French translation Roudh work to the study of both the traditional and the con- El-Kartas: Histoire des souverains du Maghreb temporary Islamic discourses. He ings have been translated into different languages dedicated his M.
It was published under the title The against women in some Islamic societies. Circles of Fear: Analysis of the ologies such as semiotics, discourse analysis, and Discourse about Women.
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